The Effectiveness of Decision-Making Training in Team-Sport Officials: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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Sports officials must make accurate, fast, and fair calls under pressure—a skill set that is difficult to develop without structured training. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined 14 studies (9 in the meta-analysis) on decision-making training for team-sport officials across different sports, tools, training durations, and performance outcomes.

The results show that training works best when tailored to decision type, sport context, and referee experience level.

1. Training Improves Decision Accuracy—Especially for Objective Calls

  • Structured programs improved accuracy compared to no training.
  • Biggest gains: Objective calls (e.g., offsides, line calls) with clear rules.
  • Smaller gains: Subjective calls (e.g., fouls) that require situational judgment.

2. Video-Based Training Works and Is Easy to Deliver

  • Most programs used 2-D video clips to improve accuracy in simulated settings.
  • Short-term interventions (4–6 weeks) produced clear benefits.
  • Weekly practice sessions offered a productive and sustainable frequency.

3. Training Works Better in Some Sports

  • Strongest results: Soccer and rugby, where rules are more clear-cut.
  • Weaker results: Australian football, where calls are often more interpretive.

4. Sub-Elite Officials Gain the Most

  • Sub-elite referees improved significantly, suggesting they benefit most from structured support.
  • Results for amateur officials were inconsistent, and evidence for elite referees remains limited.

5. VR Shows Early Potential

  • Virtual reality training helped officials practice complex, context-rich scenarios.
  • More research is needed to confirm how VR impacts real-world performance.

6. Practical Takeaways for Coaches, Trainers, and Organizations

  • Integrate decision-making training into referee development pathways.
  • Use video-based training for objective scenarios.
  • Use VR or layered scenarios for subjective calls requiring nuanced judgment.
  • Tailor programs to specific sports and referee experience levels to avoid fatigue or overload.

7. Research Gaps

  • Include a wider variety of sports and officiating levels.
  • Add real-world stressors and game contexts to training.
  • Conduct long-term follow-ups to measure retention and on-field impact.

Kittel, A., Lindsay, R., Larkin, P., Spittle, M., & Cunningham, I. (2025). The effectiveness of decision-making training in team-sport officials: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 79, 102841. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2025.102841